The problem with determinism Essay Example for Free

The problem with determinism Essay The traditional view is that of the compatibilists which states that freedom is the ability to act, or not to act, according to the determinations of the will. It is so defined to make it compatible with the theory of determinism, which essentially states that all actions have a causal explanation due to the state of the world in the moment previous. However, the definition is clearly inadequate due to the fundamental flaws of determinism and its failure to account for deliberation or personal choice. A superior alternative is offered by what Taylor calls the theory of agency, but is more commonly known as libertarianism. In discussing a theory one must start with some data in order to prove the validity of the theory, and in discussing determinism this is no different. Two suitable criteria dealing with the decision making process are: firstly that we at times deliberate with the view of making a decision , and secondly regardless of whether I deliberate I sometimes have a personal choice in the decision making process. These criteria are ideal because they are both things that we as individuals are fairly certain of so any acceptable theory must account for them in some way. For common sense, a virtue in argumentation, suggests that it is easier to accept the veracity of partial self-determination in the decision making process than an abstract philosophical theory. To asses the applicability of the data to determinism a more in depth examination of determinism is needed, which Taylor defines as having three tenets: Firstly, that the theory of determinism is true. Secondly, that voluntary behaviour is free unless constrained, and finally that causes of voluntary behaviour are certain states, condition, decisions, and desires. The principle problem of determinism is precisely this last tenet, for what are the causes of the inner states that cause my actions? Where do they come from? Are they under my control? If determinism is true then the problem of infinite causality arises for the causes of the actions must themselves have causes. When applied to the two original data the infinite causality of determinism renders these data false. Take deliberation as an example. I can deliberate only about future actions, but there are always causes to everything I do making the outcome of the deliberation inevitable and the process itself irrelevant. The incompatibility of determinism and deliberation does not bode well for the second datum, as if I am to have a personal choice in an action then I must be able to concretely execute any of the options associated with the action. But if determinism is true there can again only be one option due to the chain of causes thus negating the option of personal choice. A better theory, one that incorporates these two essential data is what Taylor calls the theory of agency, but is more commonly known as libertarianism, which postulates that human beings are frequently, but not always, self-determining beings. To further understand the theory of agency and thus its advantages it is first necessary to examine how it deals with the causation of actions. If an individual is relatively free in his decision making it follows that the individual agent can be considered a cause for the resulting action. For example, if I move my hand then the obvious cause of the motion is me and not some infinite series of causes. The lack of such a sequence of causes, unlike the one put forward by determinism, is an advantage for it allows the theory of agency to be rid of the problems of determinism discussed above. Moreover this allows libertarianism to incorporate the two criteria originally put forth. Under libertarianism deliberation becomes not just possible, but quite logical as it makes sense to ponder a matter over which I have control of the outcome. Then obviously, if I am at least a partially self-determining entity then I have a fair amount of personal choice in what course of action I should pursue. Aside from avoiding the problems of determinism, perhaps libertarianisms greatest advantage is its common sense appeal. For example, if I am considering whether to order a Big Mac for lunch or a McChicken, it makes much more sense to me that through deliberation I can choose which sandwich I would like to eat, rather than the existence of some infinite chain of events that pre-determines that I will eat a Big Mac. It is of course necessary to acknowledge that common sense and simplicity are not absolute truths, but as Bertrand Russell wrote, in support of common sense, in The Problems of Philosophy, Since this belief [in the existence of physical objects] does not lead to any difficulties, but on the contrary tends to simplify and systemize our account of our experiences, there seems no good reason for rejecting it. (Russell, 24) While Russell was addressing another problem the logic of common sense he applied most definitely applies to the case at hand as well. As a concluding argument in favour of libertarianism consider, the very fact of reading and grading this essay. If determinism were true then this essays grade would have long been pre-determined by a series of causes stretching back to before its very creation thus rendering useless the whole process. Texts Cited Russell, B. Problems of Philosophy. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1997. Taylor, R. Metaphysics. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993.

Three Theories Of Language Acquisition Psychology Essay

Three Theories Of Language Acquisition Psychology Essay One of the most important things to know as a student of speech and language therapy is the history of language acquisition theories. These theories form the foundation of common practice and have informed the development of the therapies that we will use as speech and language therapists. This essay will discuss and present arguments for three theories of acquisition: the behaviourist model, the social interactionist model, and the information processing model. Each theory will also be discussed in terms of its application to clinical practice. The behaviourist model of language acquisition came about in the 1940-50s when a lot of research was being done on learning theory and B.F. Skinner is probably the most well-known of the behavioural theorists. According to behavioural theory, all human behaviour is learned. When a person does something it is either positively or negatively reinforced; if the behaviour is positively reinforced its frequency will increase and if the behaviour is negatively reinforced its frequency will decrease and eventually stop. For example, if a child wants to put his hand on the hot stove the pain that this causes will be a negatively reinforcement and he will learn not to touch the stove. Behaviourism suggests that more complex behaviours can also be learned in this way. They argue that this can be done by one behaviour triggering the next (chaining) or by, over time reinforcing a behaviour in a way that it moves towards an ultimate target behaviour. According to Skinner (Owens,2008) humans learn everything through this manner of conditioning, including language. Skinner believed that a child sees models of language in adult communication and when the child imitates this communication, this behaviour is positively reinforced by adults. Skinner theorised that during language acquisition, when a child makes an error adults give the child negative reinforcement and when a child produces the correct language the adult gives positive reinforcement thereby conditioning the child to use the correct form. In terms of word learning, behaviourists suggest that when the child realises a word is associated with an object (e.g. ball), the presence of the object becomes the stimulus for that word. Thus, once the child knows the word ball whenever he sees the ball it will activate the word in his mind so he can say it. In terms of learning sentences, behaviourists believe that the child does this in the same manner as words or through the technique of successive approximation. For exampl e, a child hears Please pass the ball but this is too complex so he way say pass ball instead. As the child gets older the adults in his environment gradually shape his utterance into an adult form through the use of modelling, imitation, and reinforcement (Owens,2008) so that eventually he uses the correct form. As the influence of a childs environment on language has become clearer, the importance that behaviourists set on the environment has been supported (Owens, 2008). Over the years, the practice of speech and language therapy has been influenced by the behaviourist model. For example, two techniques from this model that are directly applicable to clinical practice are modelling and reinforcement. In therapy, modelling is often used with children with speech difficulties. One way in which it can be used is for the therapist to model the sound and bring the childs attention to how it is formed so that they can do it themselves. Using reinforcement is also an important aspect of therapy and a therapist can use it by setting up activities in a manner that positively reinforces the correct pronunciation. For example, a minimal pair therapy where the child gets a sweet when he pronounces the phoneme correctly. According to Owens(2008) there is evidence for the importance of modelling and rei nforcement in children as young as 9 months old; this is seen in the fact that by 9 months old a childs inventory of sounds consists mainly of those that have been said in his environment. In other words, although the child is not speaking the same sounds are constantly being modelled and reinforced in his environment and these are the sounds that will be needed for his speech. A third useful technique for therapists that is suggested by the behaviourist model is imitation. An example of a potential use for imitation in therapy would be with a child who needs to become more aware of his speaking volume or rate- the therapist could have him imitate her speaking at different volumes and different paces to increase his awareness. Evidence to support the usefulness of imitation for generalising sentence structure has been found by Whitehurst and Novak (1973)(Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993). The behaviourist model of language acquisition has attracted a lot of criticism over the past decades, much of it brought forward by Chomsky (Owens,2008) who then presented a linguistic model of language acquisition. One of the primary criticisms of the behaviourist model is the fact that it is impossible for a child to be taught every sentence that he ever will have to use- and the behaviourist model doesnt account for an ability to create novel sentences. Another criticism is the fact that parents dont use reinforcement consistently and in fact sometimes positively reinforce childrens errors (Owens,2008). Additionally, Chomsky (Owens, 2008) noted that adult speech is full of errors and ungrammatical utterances and therefore would not provide a good model for children to learn from. As one of the earliest models of language acquisition, this model has been very influential in development of treatments. Our task as future clinicians is to draw ideas from its strengths while keeping in mind the criticisms that have been set forward. The second theory of language acquisition chosen for this essay was social interaction theory. This model was developed in response to the behavioural and linguistic theories of language acquisition and incorporates aspects of both of these. The social interaction theory suggests that language develops because of its social-communicative function. According to this theory, not only do we have an innate predisposition to language but many environmental factors also affect the course of language development (Bohannon Bonvillian,1993); the predisposition to language is seen as innate but the structure of language is not. In this model, the relationship between children and their linguistic environment is seen as a dynamic one in which both are dependent on each other for efficient social communication and development of language skills (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993). According to this model, social interaction is what conventionalises a childs language structure. Social interactionists b elieve that the child uses techniques to develop his or her language such as imitation or rote learning and the environment also adjusts itself to facilitate language learning by the child; as the child shows an increased ability to understand more complex language, the linguistic environment also increases in complexity (Bohannon Bonvillian,1993). The type of language that parents often use with children is referred to by social interactionists as Child Directed Speech (CDS). Child directed speech includes communication techniques such as motherese, imitation, and scaffolding. This model suggests that children cue their parents to supply CDS and that the function of CDS is to activate the linguistic tendencies of the child (Bohannon Bonvillian,1993). According to this model, these techniques are used by adults to slowly build the childs language while enabling adults and children to communicate more effectively (Bohannon Bonvillian,1993). A strength of the social interactionist model is that because it drawn on the behariourist and linguistic models it incorporates strengths from both. Much of the evidence for the social interactionist model comes from studies that look at how caregiver-child interactions and CDS assist in language development. One of the big strengths of this model is the fact that it can account for the pragmatic aspects of language. According to Berko Gleason and Weintraub (1976), imitation and rote learning are used by children to learn things like social conventions (e.g. Thank-you) and Ninio and Snow(1999) (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993) have shown that this model also accounts for the aspects of language that need to be learned socially. E.g. turn-taking, context, cultural conventions. Further evidence has been found for the effect of social interaction on a childs developing vocabulary in a study by Tomasello and Farrar (1986)(Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993)who found that if a mother talks about the objects a child is looking at the child tends to develop a larger and earlier initial vocabulary. Snow (1972, 1977, 1999)(Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993) has also found evidence for the fact that parents adjust their communication and use different communication techniques to help them communicate more effectively with their child. The social interactionist model has also attracted criticisms since its development. One of the most important things to take into account when looking at this model is the fact that because it is quite young many aspects of it have not been tested. Also related to this is the criticism that social interactionists are seeing causation where there is only correlation (Bohannon Bonvillian,1993)- that it is impossible to tell from the studies being done whether a language delay is due to the parents lack of CDS or if the lack of CDS was a response of the parent to the language delay already present in the child (Bohannon Bonvillian,1993). A number of studies have also been carried out related to child directed speech and have found that CDS may not be as simplified as we believe it to be (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993). In addition to this, Shatz (1982)(Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993) argued that there is no mechanism specified for how CDS actually works to improve child language. These crit icisms are important to take into account and place further emphasis on the importance of having a evidence-based practice. The social interactionist model can both inform how an SLT approaches therapy and provide ides for practical application in clinical practice. This model suggests that children learn through the process of scaffolding. As a therapist this would sugest that therapy be approached by starting a child off with easier tasks and then gradually raising the difficulty level as he improves. The principle of scaffolding could also be applied to choosing target sounds for phonological therapy. For example, starting with sounds that are developmentally earlier and easier to say. An example of a therapy that uses scaffolding and that is frequently used by therapists is minimal pair therapy (Williams et al., 2010). Another way to apply the social interactionist model in clinical practice would be to help the parents strengthen their use of child directed speech and show them how to incorporate effective language learning into their daily routines with the child. An example of a program that uses this type of technique is the Hanen approach. This is a therapy technique that emphasises the importance of parental involvement in a childs lan guage development. The program places importance on both the treatment of children and the training of parents to help them incorporate language learning more effectively into their everyday lives. (The Hanen Centre, 2011) The final model of language acquisition used for this essay was the information processing model. The information processing model is a cognitive view of language development which arose along with other interactionist approaches in the 1960s and 70s as a lot of research into the field of cognition was being carried out. As other aspects of human cognition such as memory and perception were coming to be seen as similar to the workings of a computer, some theorists began exploring whether language development could be explained in a similar manner (Bohannon Bonvillian,1993). This model theorises that language is acquired in the same way as many other behaviours; the brain receives stimuli, interprets it, stores it, and then can generate the proper output by retrieving the stored information (Bohannon Bonvillian,1993). According to the information-processing model, humans have an innate ability to learn language due to the presence of a mechanism called the Parallel Distributed Processor (PDP) (Bohannon Bonvillian,1993) however, like other interactionist models this theory also suggests that the environment plays an active role in language acquisition. According to this model, the parallel distributed processor works by enabling children to learn language through example and reinforcement. The PDP is a network of nodes and pathways modelled on the neural pathways in the brain. The nodes are connected by many levels and layers of pathways. The information processing model is sometimes called the connectionist model for this reason. The nodes receive input from pathways coming from many other nodes and if enough pathways stimulate a node the node will activate and a certain output will be generated. One of the most well-known aspects of the information processing theory is the Competition Model (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993) which attempts to explain how exactly these pathways and nodes generate linguistic output. According to this, a child has multiple possible forms of a word in their head (e.g. past tense of Æ’Â   or ) which compete to represent a meaning. The form that ends up being used is determined by the number of nodes and pathways that are activated for each form. For example, a child learning to say the past tense of may not know yet whether the proper form is or . When the child decides to say this word, the pathways for both and would be activated as possible outputs. If the child chooses to say the correct option that pathway will be strengthened and the pathway for the incorrect response will be weakened. If the child chooses to say the incorrect option () and discovers that this is incorrect, that pathway will be slightly downgraded and the other pathway that should have been activated, , will be slightly strengthened. Eventually, over time and through experience the childs PDP system will agree on the true form of a word and produce a consistent, correct output. This is the manner in which children are seen to learn words and grammar. Over the years this model has accumulated evidence both in favour of it and against it. A strength of this model is that it accounts for many aspects of language learning such as how children learn frequently used forms more quickly than other less frequently used forms (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993). It also accounts for both the appearance of overregularisation errors and their disappearance. Additionally, in a study by Meyer and Schwaneveldt (1971) (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993), it was found that when a word is used it primes (subconsciously makes us think of) other related words therefore there must be some spreading activation in the language processor. This provides evidence for the existence of interconnected pathways. Much of the other supporting evidence comes from the experimental computerised model of the PDP. In 1987, Rummelhart and McClelland (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993) ran simulations on this model and found that in the case of simulating past-tense learning and producti on they got very similar learning patterns to those found in children. Additionally, when part of the language network of the PDP was shut down to simulate brain damage, the resulting performance was very similar to the deficits found in brain-damaged human patients (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993). Studies by Elman (1993)(Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993) using the same computerised model have shown that the learning ability of the system extends beyond words and can also account for the development of the syntactic system if enough examples of adult language are given. While this model has many strengths, there are also significant weaknesses. First of all, while it can account for the formation of language, it does not account for the acquisition of semantics. Additionally, as admitted by Rohde and Plaut (1999)(Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993), it doesnt take into account the social aspect of conversation, in other words, how we decipher language in relation to the social situation and how that affects what we say. Another criticism of the model of the PDP mechanism is that while it does well with information that is presented all at once (e.g. a picture), it has trouble with serial processing (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993). This poses a problem since language is serial by nature. Another common criticism of this theory is that information processing theorists make too much of the superficial similarities between the brain and the proposed PDP when there are actually many differences (Bohannon Bonvillian, 1993). A strength of this model is the fact that it may give insight into how to approach the treatment of problems relating to the grammatical structures of language. For example, the PDP system showed it could learn proper grammar through bombardment. Therefore, according to this model, bombardment will allow the child to internalise the desired structure because the input pathways will be provided with enough adult-level examples to form the correct pathway. As an application in therapy then, this suggests that the SLT could choose exercises in which the child hears the correct structure over and over again. The PDP model also suggests that each structure must be worked on separately in treatment because they all use different pathways. For example, if past tense is the problem then regular past tense must be worked on and once that structure overgeneralises then the exceptions should be targeted. As an application in clinical practice then, if the child is trying to acquire regular and irregular past tense, the SLT should start with treatment of the regular past tense, wait for that pattern to overgeneralise and then work on individual irregular past tense verbs. Both imitation and repetition are also implied as practical applications of this model in clinical practice. By having the child imitate the proper form it is suggested that both the proper input and output pathways will be activated, therefore helping the child to solidify the correct one more quickly. Similarly, by eliciting the child to repeat the proper form this model implies that the correct language pathway to solidify more quickly. In a study by Whitehurst and Novak (1973) imitation was shown to be effective in helping children solidify specific rules in their own speech and the techniques of bombardment and repetition were used as part of the treatment in a study by Seeff-Gabriel et al.(2012) which had success in a child learning to generalise the regular past tense. It is important to note that while these treatments may be effective in some cases, as previously mentioned, there is criticism for the information- processing model. It is our duty as future clinicians to look further into the research and study the effectiveness of these approaches before spending long periods of time on them with patients. All of the theories discussed here have strengths and weaknesses and all of them have implications for clinical practice. Depending on which theory an SLT is influenced by, the therapeutic approach will be different. One of the keys to being a good speech and language therapist is the ability to look at these different models and see how their strengths can be applied to create effective therapy for the client. In addition to this however, it should be kept in mind that these are only theories of language acquisition and that while we should be very aware of the theoretical underpinnings that influence the therapy and techniques we use, our aim should not be to create a practice based solely on theories. Our aim needs to be to create an evidence-based practice guided by the continuing advances in theories and current research.

Responding to Student Writing Essay -- Education, Teaching

Responding to student writing is rife with potential — potential to help students improve their writing, potential to encourage a writer to continue, and potential to make the student feel like a failure. The written text used to responding to student writing, the end notes, the marginalia, is hugely influential to student writing, but largely ignored. John Swales might identify this kind of text as an â€Å"occluded† genres—texts that are produced on a very regular basis in a composition class (including syllabus, assignment prompts, etc), but are largely ignored or viewed as inconsequential. The result of this kind of ignored text is that responses to student writing vary greatly and, when scrutinized, generally demonstrate very little substance and very little direction for the writer. In addition to ostensibly useful feedback such as guidance, praise, and corrections—comments that effectively lead students to improve their writing, the marginal comment s also include negative and seemingly useless remarks ranging from non sequiturs to failure, meanness, and cruelty. In part, the wide range of useless comments occurs because most teachers of writing are never taught how to effectively respond to student papers. Sure, many composition classes are taught by Literature scholars (or others), but writing classes are also taught by Composition scholars who, while versed in theory, oftentimes never learn the practical task of marking up student papers. If teachers of writing have been trained in effective ways to respond to student writing, it may from their experiences as a tutor in the Writing Center. To be fair, the field of Composition has explored many ways to effectively respond to student writing. The problem is that it is that te... ...of Responding to Student Writing; or, Looking for Shortcuts via the Road of Excess.† Across the Disciplines 3 (2006): 21 Jan. 2010 . Horner, Bruce. Terms of Work for Composition: A Materialist Critique. Albany: State University of New York UP, 2000. Johnson-Shull, Lisa. â€Å"Teaching Writing in the Rabbit Hole: The Curious Use of the Non Sequitur as a Staple in Teacher Comments.† Unpublished Manuscript. Rose, Mike. â€Å"Narrowing the Mind and Page: Remedial Writers and Cognitive Reductionism.† College Composition and Communication 39 (1988): 267-302. Sommers, Nancy. â€Å"Across the Drafts.† College Composition and Communication 58.2 (2006): 248-257. Swales, John M. â€Å"Occluded Genres in the Academy: The Case of the Submission Letter.† Academic Writing: Intercultural and Textual Issues. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1996. 44-58.

Frederick Douglas :: Essays Papers

Frederick Douglas Frederick Douglass, a slave in America until the age of 20, wrote three of the most highly regarded autobiographies of the 19th century, yet he only began learning to read and write when he turned 12 years old. After an early life of hardship and pain, Douglass escaped to the North to write three autobiographies, spaced decades apart, about his life as a slave and a freeman. The institution of slavery scarred him so deeply that he decided to dedicate his powers of speech and prose to fighting it. Douglass wrote three biographies about his life as a politician, slave, and abolitionist. However, the historical value of these works does not remain as important as the quality of the works themselves. Frederick Douglass’ writing deserves recognition in the canon of great American authors, because his work meets the chosen criteria for inclusion in a collection of important literature. Douglass influenced many famous abolitionists with his literary works, and this impact, coupled with his desire to write an expose about oppression in America, makes him a winning candidate. Although his published works, mostly autobiographies, received much acclaim from abolitionists, this paper explores the quality of Douglass’s work from a literary standpoint. This paper also details the events shaping Douglass’s impressive life and writing career. By examining the prestigious â€Å"life and times† of this black author, the reader will recognize the widespread influence of Douglass’s writing on other antislavery writers, politics, and hence, the public. In a look at his first and greatest work, Narrative of the Life, the following paper will demonstrate why Frederick Douglass deserves a place in the hall of great American writers. To fully appreciate the impact of Douglass’s autobiographies, we must examine violent period in which he lived. Douglass, born in 1818, grew up as a slave on Colonel Lloyd’s plantation in eastern Maryland. At the time, abolitionist movements started gaining speed as popular parties in the North. In the North, pro-slavery white mobs attacked black communities in retaliation for their efforts. By the time Douglass escaped from slavery, in 1838, tensions ran high among abolitionists and slaveowners. Slaves published accounts of their harrowing escapes, and their lives in slavery, mainly with the help of ghostwriters. Although abolitionists called for the total elimination of slavery in the South, racial segregation still occurred all over the United States. Blacks, freemen especially, found the task of finding a decent job overwhelming.

Productivity Growth In the US :: essays research papers

It was said that once-in-a-century advances in technology are transforming our economy. The computer chip is doing for today's knowledge economy what electricity did for our industrial economy a century ago. Synergies in technology are driving acceleration in productivity growth that enables us to grow faster with less inflation. Economic progress is speeding up; the speed limit is rising.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Real GDP growth has averaged 4 percent for the past four years, with declining inflation. This almost doubles the 2 percent to 2.5 percent not long ago considered the maximum noninflationary potential. But we've been growing faster than potential and sustaining the unsustainable for four years and counting. Sounds odd, doesn't it? Our faster output growth is based primarily on faster productivity growth and secondarily on faster labor force growth†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Productivity growth now appears to be at least 2.5 percent and rising. An increase from 1 percent to 2.5 percent is an increase of 150 percent, a huge jump with profound implications if sustained. Last year was encouraging. Productivity raised over 3 percent for the year and over 5 percent in the second half.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was said that the United States entered the 21st century with its economy on a roll. GDP growth averaged more than 3 percent a year in the 1990s. The country created 17 million jobs, driving unemployment down to a 30-year low of 4.1 percent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the 1999-2000 the economy wasn’t doing so bad the unemployment rate was down, there were more jobs available, and production was doing well. When 2001 stated and even before then the economy was going down, many people were being laid off and so on. Then it happened the September 11th attack on the US, this attack has left the Productivity Growth In the US :: essays research papers It was said that once-in-a-century advances in technology are transforming our economy. The computer chip is doing for today's knowledge economy what electricity did for our industrial economy a century ago. Synergies in technology are driving acceleration in productivity growth that enables us to grow faster with less inflation. Economic progress is speeding up; the speed limit is rising.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Real GDP growth has averaged 4 percent for the past four years, with declining inflation. This almost doubles the 2 percent to 2.5 percent not long ago considered the maximum noninflationary potential. But we've been growing faster than potential and sustaining the unsustainable for four years and counting. Sounds odd, doesn't it? Our faster output growth is based primarily on faster productivity growth and secondarily on faster labor force growth†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Productivity growth now appears to be at least 2.5 percent and rising. An increase from 1 percent to 2.5 percent is an increase of 150 percent, a huge jump with profound implications if sustained. Last year was encouraging. Productivity raised over 3 percent for the year and over 5 percent in the second half.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was said that the United States entered the 21st century with its economy on a roll. GDP growth averaged more than 3 percent a year in the 1990s. The country created 17 million jobs, driving unemployment down to a 30-year low of 4.1 percent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the 1999-2000 the economy wasn’t doing so bad the unemployment rate was down, there were more jobs available, and production was doing well. When 2001 stated and even before then the economy was going down, many people were being laid off and so on. Then it happened the September 11th attack on the US, this attack has left the

Morning After Pill

Morning after-pill (MAP) or plan B is an emergency pill that stops a woman from becoming pregnant if contraception failed or wasn’t used. The morning after pill works best if taken within 24 hours of unprotected sex. Medics argue that plan B’s efficacy is up 70% and its effectiveness up to 72 hours there after its efficacy is not known. (http://www.netdoctor.co.k/whoisd.html). It is noteworthy that the earlier it’s taken the better. Examples of medicine currently used include levonelle one step in UK and postinor2 in most Africa states. The pills contain a female-type hormone such as levorgestrel. Other names used to refer to MAP include post-coital pill (PCP) and emergency contraceptive (EC)-emergency because it is not used under normal circumstances and has stricter conditions under which they can be used for instance, the postinor2 mostly used in Africa states can only be used once within every menstrual cycle. Remember MAP cannot work if one is already pregnant and therefore it is not an abortion-causing drug. MAP works in two possible ways; preventing ovaries from releasing egg or altering the lining of the womb so a fertilized egg wont be implanted. I want to argue that MAP must be made readily available to interested consumers. Let us first consider the categories of people who use it and their circumstances. 1) Rape victims A lady may be raped during her fertile days such unplanned and unprotected sex may result in unwanted pregnancy. An instance such as this justifies the use of MAP. MAP would help prevent pregnancy, which may alleviate the possibility of abortion (as the one raped may opt for it), and the humiliation a child who is as a result of rape may face from parent(s). 2) Women who have been lured into sex while under the influence of emotional whims or drugs. Women under such influence of drug and alcohol may find themselves having unprotected sex. Men may want to take advantage of them. Once such women regain sobriety, MAP may be handy in preventing anxiety and pregnancy. Everyone will agree that at some point in their life, at least every woman, because of circumstances such as the ones we have, may lose their sobriety. Isn’t it kind of medics for providing such women an alternative and possibility for preventing unwanted pregnancy? 3) Lovers or a couple may suffer condom burst/breakage. If this happens, without MAP there would be no other easy way of preventing pregnancy. The fact that such people were using a condom implies that they never wanted conception to occur. Isn’t MAP a relief to most couples? I will reiterate that MAP does not induce abortion and therefore Christians opposed to abortion and other pro-life activists have no reason to be indifferent. As a matter of fact, they should advocate for it as it has come in to reduce cases of abortion emanating from rape, condom burst and unplanned sexual intercourse. When these happen, MAP provides the consolation that, ‘its not too late, there is plan B’. With advancement in the medical field unlike the older MAP, today’s pills cause very little side-effects. Statistics show that one woman in every 60 actually vomits. Other mild side effects include tummy ache, breast tenderness, dizziness and vaginal spotting of blood. These side effects are less severe as compared with the risks of not using MAP. Critics of MAP feel there is no need for one to subject themselves to such side effects but the risks in not using it may be too heavy to bear. MAP can be used by a greater percentage of women apart from for instance those with porphyria and severe liver problems. Having explored MAP, we should be right to state that access to it must be made easy. Local pharmacists should be allowed to stock it and allow clients to buy it without necessarily needing a doctor’s prescription. (American Medical Association, 2006; Ellertson, Trussell, Stewart &Winikoff, 1998).  Ã‚   After all, the side effects are not problematic are again most ladies are knowledgeable of how to use it and for what purposes. Although others feel this may prompt its abuse but we can argue that Pharmacists can chat with client quickly about it to know whether they understand its appropriate use and the side effects. It’s encouraging to learn that in America, an over-the-counter sale of the ‘morning after’ contraceptive pill to those over 18 has been approved. Abortion rights advocates hailed this although many bemoaned the age restrict.   â€Å"We are pleased that a common sense common-ground agenda for reducing unintended pregnancy and the need for abortion finally won out.† Said Kinsten Moore, President of the reproductive health technology project, Washington. (www.nytimes.com/2006/08/24/health/24cnd-pill.htm) Anti-abortion groups feel plan B is an abortion pill whose widespread availability would lead to increased STD. Other abortion rights pushed for over-the-counter availability of plan B arguing that its availability would sharply reduce the newly 1 million abortions performed annually in USA but this may not be true as studies suggest that in the USA, couples have so much unprotected sex. â€Å"EC don’t work if are kept in the draw† and studies show that even if women have pills on hand, the drawer is where they remain.† Says Dr James Trussell, Princeton University. But Dr Raines says, â€Å"Unintended pregnancy rates have been dropping over the last decade. Plan B will contribute to further decline. (www.nytimes.com/2006/08/24/health/24cnd-pill.htm) The term morning –after pill is inmost cases misleading in its effectiveness. It’s Not 100% and only works up to 70%. Therefore some women have unprotected sex hoping to use MAP but unfortunately they end up becoming pregnant and this may lead to abortion or disorient one’s family plan.   Some women are opposed to it because it doesn’t protect them from pregnancy for the rest of their menstrual cycle. It therefore compels them to abstain from sex or use a barrier method like a condom. Again, it is believed that MAP is not good at protecting ectopic pregnancy (EP) (Stewart and Van Look, 1998 P142). Incase it causes EP, then the repercussions quite expensive and ladies who know what having an ectopic pregnancy tend to oppose MAP. However, as per now EP caused by MAP would be just like any other accident and so far medical researchers haven’t linked MAP directly to EP unless research proves it. We should not jump into conclusion. Again no research has shown any increase in abnormities among babies whose mothers took MAP. Some people argue against MAP on the basing that past experience does show that other hormones taken in early pregnancy have harmed children. But instead of using assumptions, focused studies should be done to establish the connection between MAP and babies’ abnormalities and EP. Otherwise, we will not have a firm ground to stand and argue that simply because other hormones have caused abnormalities, MAP too causes it. It may be an exception The intra-uterine device (IUDS)/the coil is an alternative for MAP. Unfortunately only few medical specialists are trained in fitting them efficiently. Again the intra-uterine device may make one anemic because of the volume and length of menstrual flow. Insertion is difficult and painful for women and has more restrictions, which include heart value problems, previous EP and pelvic infection. (Bucar, 1999). This makes MAP to remain the most appropriate and least expensive. So opposing its use and making it difficult to access only makes it strenuous for women. I believe every one should be in control of their life. A medicine such as MAP gives women more means to control and plan for their lives. Arguing against MAP is like arguing that family planning should be done away with to allow chance and nature to rein it an arena that it otherwise shouldn’t. In conclusion, the current price range of $25-$40 should be lowered and possibly subsidized by the federal governments. Arrangements should be made and possibilities explored on providing emergency contraception for free like its done in some parts of the UK. Youth advisory clinics, family planning clinics, college health centers, STD clinics and walk-in clinics must seek to stock and make readily available MAP at a lowest cost possible. Work cited 1. American Medical Association, Council on Medical Service. Access to Emergency Contraception [H-75.985] Chicago, IL: AMA, 2006; 2. Bucar, L. Caution: Catholic Health Restrictions May Be Hazardous to Your Health . Washington, DC: Catholics for a Free Choice, 1999. 3. Devin, D. Contraceptive coils (IUDS) http://www.netdoctor.co.k/whoisd.html Accessed online on 24 November 2007 1:50:42 GMT. 4. Ellertson, C., Trussell, J., Stewart F.H, Winikoff, B. Should emergency contraceptive pills be available without a prescription? Journal of the America Medical Women’s Association. 1998; 53 (5, Supplement 2): 226-229. 5. Gardiner Harris, 24thAug 2006.In New York Times. http://www.nytims.com/2006/08/24/heath/24end-pill.html. Accessed online on 23rd, Nov. 2007 6. Stewart F, Van Look P.F.A. Emergency contraception: Contraceptive Technology .17th revised edition. New York: Irvington, 1998.

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Spiritual formation can begin to develop in young children and may still be forming, or sibyl decreasing, throughout old age. Many occurrences in life can lead to the enhancement of spiritual formation, while there are also times that negative life experiences can decrease one's assurance in the Lord. Many things, even not knowing what to do to get that spark back with the Lord, can cause hitting a bump in the road of one's spiritual journey. However, in the Bible the Lord shows many ways to stay on track and keep growing in Him.The development of Spiritual formation and growth throughout the lifespan is rewarding, peaceful and most of all, what the Lord wants everyone to experience. Spiritual formation occurs throughout the lifespan, starting at a very young age and can continue through old age. How far one is willing to go to be formed spiritually is up to them. There are many obstacles in life that may prevent one from growing spiritually; however, there are also many occurrences in life that further spiritual formation.One of the most important things that someone can experience in life is spiritual formation, and there are many ways that it may happen. Spiritual formation is â€Å"the process of spiritual shaping and growth† (MacArthur, 2012). Children can tart being formed spiritually at an early age. Attending Sunday school, having a parent read Bible stories or sing Bible songs with them, and hearing about the mighty works of God can all assist in a child's spiritual growth. Assistance is necessary for a child to begin their spiritual journey. From an early age, children have significant learning and interpretative capacities† (Scott, 2004) which makes them extremely open to taking in what they see and hear. (In her journal article, Faith Formation Across the Generations, Marietta Martinets explains, ‘†We are not formed or fashioned into a people n isolation† (Martinets, 2007). We need assistance in taking the spiritual jo urney. A child cannot begin to know God if the Word is never introduced to them. Children grow in their understanding of discipleship as they listen to their parents or other adults talk about the challenges of being a person of justice† (Martinets, 2007). When a child is involved in church at an early age, memoirs are put into place through relationships and also through teaching (Merchantable, Kaiser, & Larson, 2014). These memories â€Å"will shape faith formation and draw the child closer to Jesus Christ (Merchantable, Kaiser, & Larson, 2014). Spiritual formation starts here. James Fowler introduced the theory on the 6 stages of faith.In his theory he explains the journey, through the lifespan, of spiritual formation. It is a very important theory to understand when it comes to spiritual formation across the lifespan. He introduces stage one as an imaginative stage, usually from ages 2-7, where beliefs are formed and the child is very easily persuaded. Negative teachings during this stage could be very damaging to a child's mind and could harm their spiritual journey. The second stage in Fowlers theory is hen a child starts to understand more clearly the real meaning behind the teachings.The fairy-tale like beliefs start to become more realistic and they are exchanged for more life like situations. The meaning behind right and wrong starts to be understood and a consequence and reward system is learned. Growth from this Stage may happen when obstacles are thrown in the ways that require thought and reflection on the actual meaning of Faith. Stage 3 is mentioned to happen around puberty, but actually, many adults find themselves in this stage also. Beliefs are formed from influential figures eke preachers, communities and the Government.This stage is called the synthetic, conventional stage, due to the fact that one's beliefs may not be truly thought about and they may be just going with the crowd. When one starts to realize a conflict between their personal beliefs and that of the power source, they may progress to stage 4. This stage is a more realistic stage, where a person may begin to reflect on their past behavior and really understand the true meaning of the Word. It is said that this is one of the hardest stages to adjust to. This stage requires crawling out of one's shell ND making a step towards God.The authority figures don't have as much say so for one in this stage, as they begin to form their own beliefs. Stage 5 is a step above figuring it out for yourself, and moves on to openly communicating with others of the same Faith in hopes of figuring out answers and receiving better understanding of the Word. Someone in this stage is a very important figure in humanity, as they have a lot of wisdom to spread. In stage 6, which is considered universalistic faith, one may sacrifice their entire self to serving God. Fowler explains that not many reach this tag. Johnston, 2009) As a child grows up into a young adult, it is possible that their spiritual formation is deepening and they are becoming closer to God. Fowler explains, â€Å"As people age, not only do they show more religious commitment, but scholars have also shown that the nature of their faith changes† (as cited in Eagle, 2008). The enhancement of one's spirituality can be obtained by doing many things. Adults seem to look to faith in helping to deal with a major sickness, to control emotional issues, to find security, and to ease worries regarding demise (Eagle, 2008).It is during these times that one may become closer to God and enhance their spiritual formation. Communities, churches, and influential figures may be contacted and relied on during rough times, making it important that one go to the right person for advice or direction during a serious time, so that they may be lead in the most Godly manner. Faith can be enhanced, but it also can be weakened. â€Å"Each new life experience, personal or otherwise, may potentially sh ake and challenge even the strongest religious foundations† (Eagle, 2008).There has been research guarding religious doubt and how it actually may help build one's faith. Studies have pointed out that when someone hits a bump in the road of life, it could end up making their faith stronger. There will be a time of doubt, of course, when disappointment, hopelessness, and depression may occur and during that time one's faith may weaken. It may be at these times when one's spiritual formation comes to a halt. However, â€Å"Religious doubts and questionings are resolved by conformity to prescriptions and/or the expectations of significant others† (Killing, Sorrel', Montgomery, & Colonel, 2006).In different terms, seeking out advice for resolution is helpful from ones that have seen the work of God in their lives and are knowledgeable of the faith, confirming one's own beliefs through another person's life trails and experiences. â€Å"Interestingly (and unfortunately), so me Christians choose to return to an earlier level of spiritual formation† (Cent, n. D. ). This may happen when a negative life event occurs; however, one's faith can always be lifted back up. â€Å"V'/tit proper love and care from those Christians who share life with them, most will become progressing Christians again† (lent, n. . ). The Bible tells about many ways to stay on track with growing spiritually. For instance, in Galatians God speaks about what the â€Å"Fruit of the spirit† (Gal. 5:22-23 ESP.) really is. This gives someone an idea of what they can expect when they trust in the Lord and how wonderful His love really is if it is sought out. The Bible also says â€Å"l can do all things through Him who strengthens me† (Phil. 4:13). This gives people hope that they can conquer all while on their journey through spiritual formation. That verse is a great foundation for anyone. Peter speaks about the effort one should make to effectively and rituall y live out God's word (2 Pet. 1:5-8). In that passage, one can see what the necessary talents are to live a Godly life. In Ephesians, God says, â€Å"we are to grow up in every way into Him who is the head, into Christ† (Epees. 4:15-16). There are many, many more scriptures that can help one with their spiritual journey. During times of doubt, scripture can lead a person in the right direction and help enhance their spiritual formation and also help them to understand what the Lord may want them to do in that time of doubt.Spiritual formation is something God wants everyone to achieve. A life is not worth living without God in it. Everyone's journey in growing spiritually will be different, some starting at a very early age in Sunday school, some starting later in their adult life. Everyone will have their ups and downs with their spiritual growth, some regressing when things get tough and others becoming stronger during the storm. God has given the people proper resources to be successful in life and to have faith in Him fully. Seeking out the Lord and progressing in one's spiritual formation is what living is all about.